“My teachers’ practices”: validation of a tool for evaluating students’ perceptions of teaching
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Published:
May 4, 2026
Keywords:
students’ perceptions, teaching practices, lower secondary school, validation, scales
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Abstract
The study presents a validation of a scale designed to assess students’ perceptions of their teachers' teaching strategies. This scale is part of a questionnaire administered to a sample of 1,386 lower secondary school students participating in a PRIN project involving eight schools across the national territory. To construct synthetic indices of teaching practices, a Principal Component Analysis was conducted, revealing four components: structured teaching, multimodal teaching, active construction of meaning, and textbook-based instruction. Except for the latter, whose items were excluded due to their limited number and low internal consistency, all other components showed good reliability indices (α > 0,7). This tool is beneficial not only for monitoring teaching practices in schools but also for designing interventions within a Teacher Professional Development Research approach.
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Open topic section
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References
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Liverano, G. (2024). Promuovere l'inclusione di alunni in condizione di vulnerabilità scolastica attraverso pratiche didattiche interdisciplinari. Journal of Health Care Education in Practice, 6(1), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.25430/pupj-jhcep-2024-1-15
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Moè, A., Pazzaglia, F., & Friso, G. (2010). MESI: Motivazioni, emozioni, strategie e insegnamento. Questionari metacognitivi per insegnanti. Erickson.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill, Inc.
OECD. (2016). Innovating Education and Educating for Innovation: The Power of Digital Technologies and Skills. OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264265097-en
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Oro, A. & Vannini, I. (2025). Leggere il fattore ESCS attraverso sguardi non semplificati: l’impatto dei contesti scolastici sui risultati INVALSI in Matematica in un’analisi esplorativa su sei istituti secondari di primo grado. CADMO Giornale Italiano di Pedagogia Sperimentale, 1(33), 20–43. https://doi.org/10.3280/CAD2024-002003
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Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–39.
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7(2), 147–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.2.147
Soriani, A. (2019). Sottobanco. L'influenza delle tecnologie sul clima della classe. FrancoAngeli.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using Multivariate Statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
Thornberg, R., Wegmann, B., Wänström, L., Bjereld, Y., & Hong, J. S. (2022). Associations between Student–Teacher Relationship Quality, Class Climate, and Bullying Roles: A Bayesian Multilevel Multinomial Logit Analysis. Victims & Offenders, 17(8), 1196–1223. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2022.2051107
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Trinchero, R. (2017). Models and best practices for a quality school. Form@ re – Open Journal per la formazione in rete, 17(3), 1–8.
Van De Grift, W. (2007). Quality of teaching in four European countries: A review of the literature and application of an assessment instrument. Educational Research, 49(2), 127–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131880701369651
Vygotskij, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge University Press.
Witter, M., & Rowe, L. (2024). Students Can Identify Quality Teachers, but can They Distinguish Between Dimensions of Quality Teaching? A Comparative Analysis of the Structure Behind the Tripod Survey. Educational Assessment, 29(4), 251–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627197.2024.2414966
Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale Development Research: A Content Analysis and Recommendations for Best Practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
Baldassarre, M., & Sassanelli L. D. (2021). UDL and Inclusive Technologies: state of the art and models for implementation. Q-Times. Journal of Education, Technology and Social Studies, 13(3), 153–171.
Bartlett, M. S. (1954). A Note on the Multiplying Factors for Various Chi Square Approximations. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 16, 296–298. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2984057
Bijlsma, H. (2021). The Quality of Student Perception Questionnaires: A Systematic Review. In W. Rollett, H. Bijlsma, & S. Röhl. (Eds), Student Feedback on Teaching in Schools: Using Student Perceptions for the Development of Teaching and Teachers (pp. 1–25). Springer International Publishing.
Bonaiuti, G. (2013). Apprendimento significativo. In G. Marconato (Ed.), Ambienti di apprendimento per la formazione continua (pp. 291–306). Guaraldi.
Bonaiuti, G. (2014). Le strategie didattiche. Carocci.
Bonaiuti, G., Calvani, A., & Ranieri, M. (2016). Fondamenti di didattica. Carocci.
Borkowski, J. G., & Muthukrishna, N. (2014). Didattica metacognitiva. Come insegnare strategie efficaci di apprendimento. Erickson.
Bruner, J. S. (1969). Il pensiero. Strategie e categorie. Armando.
Calvani, A., (2011). Principi dell’istruzione e strategie per insegnare. Criteri per una didattica efficace. Carocci.
Calvani, A., Marzano, A., & Miranda, S. (2021). Formazione degli insegnanti alla didattica efficace. Come orientare l’osservazione e il cambiamento delle pratiche in classe? Formazione & Insegnamento, 19 (1), 599–621. http://dx.doi.org/10.7346/-fei-XIX-01-21_53.
Cecalupo, M. (2021). Didattiche per Ambienti Di Apprendimento e ruolo degli insegnanti: uno studio sul Modello DADA. Stamen Editore
Cesaretti, L. (2021). Intelligenza artificiale e educazione: un incontro tra due mondi. Rischi ed opportunità. Rivista di Scienze dell'educazione, 59(1), 81–98. https://igjr.org/ojs/index.php/rse/article/view/1255
Clark, R. C. (2000). Four architectures of instruction. Performance Improvement, 39(10), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/pfi.4140391011
Eurydice (2023). Structural Indicators for monitoring education and training systems in Europe – 2023: Key competences at school. Publications Office of the European Union.
Fedeli, M. (2020). Active Learning o Lecturing? Strategie per integrare la lezione frontale e active learning. Educational Reflective Practices, 1(10), 95–113. https://doi.org/10.3280/erp2019-001007
Ferguson, R. F. (2012). Can student surveys measure teaching quality? Phi Delta Kappan, 94(3), 24–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172171209400306
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906
Guasconi, E., Cecalupo, M., & Asquini, G. (2025). Teaching practices and students’ study methods: An investigation to combat educational poverty = Pratiche didattiche e metodo di studio: un’indagine esplorativa per contrastare la povertà educativa. Form@ re – Open Journal per la formazione in rete, 25(2), 399–414. https://doi.org/10.36253/form-17633
Gui, M. (2019). Il digitale a scuola: rivoluzione o abbaglio? Il Mulino.
Hattie, J. (2023). Visible Learning: The Sequel. A Synthesis of Over 2,100 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement. Routledge.
Kaiser, H. F., & Rice, J. (1974). Little Jiffy, Mark IV. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34(1), 111–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447403400115
Kaiser, H. F. (1958) The Varimax Criterion for Analytic Rotation in Factor Analysis. Psychometrika, 23, 187–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289233
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.
La Marca, A. & Cappuccio, G. (2020). Didattica metacognitiva e apprendimento cooperativo. Pensa MultiMedia Editore.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.
Ligorio, M. B., Cacciamani, S., & Cesareni, D. (2021). Didattica blended. Teorie, metodi ed esperienze. Mondadori Education.
Liverano, G. (2024). Promuovere l'inclusione di alunni in condizione di vulnerabilità scolastica attraverso pratiche didattiche interdisciplinari. Journal of Health Care Education in Practice, 6(1), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.25430/pupj-jhcep-2024-1-15
Marzano, A., & Calvani, A. (2020). Evidence Based Education e didattica efficace: come integrare conoscenze metodologiche e tecnologiche nella formazione degli insegnanti. Journal of Educational, Cultural and Psychological Studies (ECPS Journal), 1(22), 125–141. https://doi.org/10.7358/ecps-2020-022-maca
Maulana, R., Helms-Lorenz, M., & van de Grift, W. (2015). Development and evaluation of a questionnaire measuring pre-service teachers’ teaching behaviour: a Rasch modelling approach. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 26(2), 169–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2014.939198
Moè, A., Pazzaglia, F., & Friso, G. (2010). MESI: Motivazioni, emozioni, strategie e insegnamento. Questionari metacognitivi per insegnanti. Erickson.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill, Inc.
OECD. (2016). Innovating Education and Educating for Innovation: The Power of Digital Technologies and Skills. OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264265097-en
OECD. (2025). Results from TALIS 2024: The State of Teaching, TALIS. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/90df6235-en.
Oro, A. & Vannini, I. (2025). Leggere il fattore ESCS attraverso sguardi non semplificati: l’impatto dei contesti scolastici sui risultati INVALSI in Matematica in un’analisi esplorativa su sei istituti secondari di primo grado. CADMO Giornale Italiano di Pedagogia Sperimentale, 1(33), 20–43. https://doi.org/10.3280/CAD2024-002003
Parola, A. (2022). La scuola asimmetrica: tempi, spazi, scritture per l’equilibrio bio-digitale. In A. F. De Toni, R. Masiero, & S. Tagliagambe (Eds.), Per un manifesto del digitale nella scuola. (pp. 253–275). Mimesis.
Redecker, C. (2017). European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators: DIGCOMPEDU. JRC Publications Repository. https://doi.org/10.2760/178382
Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–39.
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7(2), 147–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.2.147
Soriani, A. (2019). Sottobanco. L'influenza delle tecnologie sul clima della classe. FrancoAngeli.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using Multivariate Statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
Thornberg, R., Wegmann, B., Wänström, L., Bjereld, Y., & Hong, J. S. (2022). Associations between Student–Teacher Relationship Quality, Class Climate, and Bullying Roles: A Bayesian Multilevel Multinomial Logit Analysis. Victims & Offenders, 17(8), 1196–1223. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2022.2051107
Trevisan, O. (2023). Ri-pensare la didattica nell'era digitale. Pensa Multimedia.
Trinchero, R. (2017). Models and best practices for a quality school. Form@ re – Open Journal per la formazione in rete, 17(3), 1–8.
Van De Grift, W. (2007). Quality of teaching in four European countries: A review of the literature and application of an assessment instrument. Educational Research, 49(2), 127–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131880701369651
Vygotskij, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge University Press.
Witter, M., & Rowe, L. (2024). Students Can Identify Quality Teachers, but can They Distinguish Between Dimensions of Quality Teaching? A Comparative Analysis of the Structure Behind the Tripod Survey. Educational Assessment, 29(4), 251–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627197.2024.2414966
Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale Development Research: A Content Analysis and Recommendations for Best Practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127