Formative assessment processes, observation, documentation, and feedback practices in light of a neuroeducational perspective
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Published:
May 4, 2026
Keywords:
feedback, formative assessment, neuroeducation, questionnaire, educational professionalism
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Abstract
The paper presents the second phase of the validation process of a questionnaire designed to explore educational professionals’ knowledge and representations concerning formative assessment and feedback. The instrument, developed from a theoretical framework that intertwines docimological reflection and the principles of neuroeducation (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Allal, 2007; Bondioli & Savio, 2013; Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007), was administered to a group of prospective educators enrolled in the Bachelor’s Degree in Educational Sciences at the University of Palermo. The items, organised on a five-point Likert scale, investigate the areas of formative assessment, feedback, observation, and documentation, considered in light of the neuroeducational principles that underpin their formative dimension. The analyses revealed good internal consistency of the instrument and results consistent with the hypothesised theoretical structure, showing high levels of agreement with formative assessment practices and lower familiarity with neuroeducational principles.
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References
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Barabanova, I., & Kazlauskiene, A. (2020). Neuropedagogy: Preconditions for application of neuroscience results in the education process while providing feedback. Technium, 2(5), 112-122.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139–148.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 5–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5
Boulay, B., & Goodson, B. (2018). The Investing in Innovation Fund: Summary of 67 Evaluation: Final report. U.S. Department of Education. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20184013/pdf/20184013.pdf
Bowers, J. S. (2016). The practical and principled problems with educational neuroscience. Psychological Review, 123(5), 600–612. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1037/rev0000025
Bruner, J. S. (1996). The culture of education. Harvard University Press.
Calvani, A., & Vivanet, G. (2014). Per un'istruzione basata su evidenze: Analizzare la ricerca empirica per migliorare la pratica didattica. Carocci.
Clark, A., Kjørholt, A. T., & Moss, P. (2005). Beyond listening: Children’s perspectives on early childhood services. Policy Press.
Compagno, G., Albanese M., (2022). La valutazione delle attività neurodidattiche. Fondamenti, tecniche e strumenti. Anicia.
Dehaene, S. (2020). How we learn: Why brains learn better than any machines for now. Viking.
Dewey, J. (1929). The sources of a science of education. Horace Liveright.
Drueke, B., Weichert, L., Forkmann, T., Mainz, V., Gauggel, S., & Boecker, M. (2015). Neural correlates of positive and negative performance feedback in younger and older adults. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 11, Article 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-015-0062-z
Eskreis-Winkler, L., & Fishbach, A. (2019). Not learning from failure — The greatest failure of all. Psychological Science, 30(12), 1733–1744. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619881133
Furtak, E. M., & Heredia, S. C. (2014). Exploring the influence of learning progressions in two teacher communities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(8), 982–1020.
Grange, T. (2015). Cultura della valutazione e sviluppo professionale alla scuola dell’infanzia: l’interesse di un approccio partecipativo. Rivista Italiana di Educazione Familiare, 2(2), 69–87.
Grion, V., Serbati, A., Doria, B., & Nicol, D. (2021). Ripensare il concetto di feedback: il ruolo della comparazione nei processi di valutazione per l’apprendimento. Education Sciences & Society, 12(2), 205–220. https://doi.org/10.3280/ess2-2021oa12429
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487
Heredia, S. C., Furtak, E. M., Morrison, D., & Renga, I. P. (2016). Science teachers’ representations of classroom practice in the process of formative assessment design. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 27(7), 697–716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972-016-9482-3
Heritage, M. (2010). Formative Assessment and Next-Generation Assessment Systems: Are We Losing an Opportunity?. Council of Chief State School Officers.
Heritage, M. (2010). Formative assessment: Making it happen in the classroom. Corwin Press.
Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2015). Emotions, learning, and the brain: Exploring the educational implications of affective neuroscience. W. W. Norton.
Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Damasio, A. (2007). We feel, therefore we learn: The relevance of affective and social neuroscience to education. Mind, Brain, and Education, 1(1), 3–10.
Kandel, E. R. (2007). In search of memory: The emergence of a new science of mind. WW Norton & Company.
Kim, S. I., & Shin, D. D. (2025). The art of negative feedback: A neuroeducational perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 82, Article 102392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102392
King-Sears, M.E., & Strogilos, V. (2020). An exploratory study of self-efficacy, school belongingness, and co-teaching perspectives from middle school students and teachers in a mathematics co-taught classroom. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 24(2), 162–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1453553
Levy, D. J., & Glimcher, P. W. (2011). Comparing apples and oranges: using reward-specific and reward-general subjective value representation in the brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(41), 14693–14707.
Maireles, D. M., & Capperucci, D. (2022). La competenza valutativa secondo gli insegnanti: un’indagine condotta con gli insegnanti di scuola dell’infanzia e del primo ciclo d’istruzione in quattro istituti comprensivi della Toscana. Ricerche di Pedagogia e Didattica. Journal of Theories and Research in Education, 17(3), 57–85.
Malaguzzi, L. (1996). I cento linguaggi dei bambini. Reggio Children.
Mareschal, D., Johnson, M. H., Sirois, S., Spratling, M., Thomas, M., & Westermann, G. (2007). Neuroconstructivism: How the brain constructs cognition. Oxford University Press.
Martínez-Abad, F., Bielba-Calvo, M., & Herrera-García, M. E. (2017). Evaluación, formación e innovación en competencias informaciones para profesores y estudiantes de educación secundaria. Revista de educación, 316, 110–134. https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2017-376-346
Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 1997(74), 5–12.
MIUR. (2017). Decreto Legislativo 13 aprile 2017, n. 65 – Istituzione del sistema integrato di educazione e di istruzione dalla nascita sino a sei anni. Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 112.
MIUR. (2021). Linee pedagogiche per il sistema integrato 0-6. Ministero dell'Istruzione.
Moss, P. (2019). Alternative narratives in early childhood: An introduction for students and practitioners. Routledge.
OECD. (2021). OECD future of education and skills 2030. Conceptual learning framework. OECD Publishing.
OECD. (2022). Starting Strong VI: Supporting meaningful interactions in early childhood education and care. OECD Publishing.
Palghat, K., Horvath, J. C., & Lodge, J. M. (2017). The hard problem of ‘educational neuroscience’. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 6, 204–210.
Panksepp, J. (2012). The archaeology of mind: Neuroevolutionary origins of human emotions. W. W. Norton.
Pellerey, M. (1998). Valutare e certificare le competenze. La Scuola.
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Educating the human brain. American Psychological Association.
Privitera, A. J. (2021). A scoping review of research on neuroscience training for teachers. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 24, Article 100157.
Repubblica Italiana. (2017). Decreto Legislativo 13 aprile 2017, n. 65 – Istituzione del sistema integrato di educazione e di istruzione dalla nascita sino ai sei anni. Gazzetta Ufficiale
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books.
Shepard, L. A. (2019). Classroom assessment to support teaching and learning. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 683(1), 183–200.
Trinchero, R. (2004). La ricerca-azione per la scuola. FrancoAngeli.
UNESCO. (2021). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education. UNESCO Publishing.
Van Duijvenvoorde, A. C., Zanolie, K., Rombouts, S. A., Raijmakers, M. E., & Crone, E. A. (2008). Evaluating the negative or valuing the positive? Neural mechanisms supporting feedback-based learning across development. Journal of Neuroscience, 28(38), 9495–9503.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge University Press.
Wiliam, D., & Thompson, M. (2007). Integrating assessment with instruction: What will it take to make it work? In C. A. Dwyer (Ed.), The future of assessment: Shaping teaching and learning (pp. 53–82). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.